If he was concerned for his own soul he was also concerned for the souls of his people, especially those in the north.
Sutton and Visser-Fuchs place Richard firmly in his time: 'Richard's religion was that of the later middle ages, humanised, fervent and personal within the strong and controlling framework of the church.
He directed his attention to the same things: he, too, adopted favourite saints to be his patrons and intermediaries with God and had particular objects of veneration. Richard left no spiritual or other writings which would help us. But he owned religious books, whose character leads one to suppose that they were for use rather than ornament.
He founded colleges and chantries and he gave alms generously in comparison to others. He probably, prayed every day, and no doubt attended Mass and other services of the church regularly. We know he had a confessor, so he will have received the Sacrament of Penance regularly too. As far as we can judge, Richard fulfilled his obligations and more, and for a medieval prince that was remarkable.
Armstrong in For Hilaire Belloc , ed. Douglas Woodruff Hammond, London, Most personal of all, perhaps, is his 'confession' in his letter to Louis XI, King of France, who had presented him, in when he was still duke of Gloucester, with a 'great bombard', the largest and most expensive gunpowder weapon available at the time.
Richard thanked the king in a letter and added 'I have always taken and still take great pleasure in artillery and I assure you it will be a special treasure to me'. There was, of course, nothing unusual in a twenty-six-year-old nobleman being fascinated by such weapons: they were part of the most up-to-date military technology of the day.
We gain intimate information of a different nature about Richard's interests from the account of the Silesian traveller, Nicolas von Popplau, who met the king in the spring of Von Popplau reports how Richard was able to express admiration at his guest's mastery of the Latin tongue; praises the choir employed by the king as 'the sweetest music he had ever heard' , describes the magnificence of the king's meal and the great ceremony that accompanied it, but also his graciousness to his guest.
Their conversation, which almost made the king forget to eat, was wide ranging: it went from the Latin origin of the name of Pontefract to the exact date of the annual ceremony of feet washing on Maundy Thursday. The king asked von Popplau about continental princes and their affairs, and about the Turks in particular. Having been told how the king of Hungary had recently gained a great victory over them, Richard enviously exclaimed: 'I would like my kingdom and land to lie where the land and kingdom of the king of Hungary lies, on the Turkish frontier itself' , and continued: 'Then I would certainly, with my own people alone, without the help of other kings, princes or lords, completely drive away not only the Turks, but all my enemies and opponents!
His enthusiastic remark shows his confidence in his own military abilities as well as his awareness of the international situation, which made it impossible to create an alliance between the ever-squabbling princes of western Europe and organise a concerted attack on the Turks. The general impression of Richard that we get from von Popplau's account is that of a magnificent and thoughtful princely host, who took a great interest in many, diverse matters.
The Middleham Jewel Another indication of what Richard liked can be found in the will of Sir John Pilkington, a long standing servant of the house of York.
In the same context should be mentioned one of those prejudices, or rather 'myths', about Richard III which have sprung up over the years: the curious idea that he was a 'fop', a dandy. This is based on the misunderstanding, by several generations of historians, of the contents of the surviving Great Wardrobe accounts, which list among other things the materials needed for the robes worn by the fifteenth-century kings.
These may appear unusually sumptuous but in fact merely illustrate the standard norms of a medieval court and its splendours. Richard's Religious Books Finally and most importantly there is Richard's undoubted liking for books. His surviving 'library' is a remarkable collection, covering most medieval interests and fields of knowledge, except medicine, law, and theology.
Striking is the fact that he put his name in his books, not as common a practice in his day as one might think. The bias of his collection, if there is one, is towards history and the history books together covered nearly everything from mythical beginnings to his own day: the story of Troy by Guido delle Collone and the lives of the British kings by Geoffrey of Monmouth, both in Latin St Petersburg, Saltykov-Shchedrin State Public Library MS Lat.
To these can be added a number of genealogical rolls and the most famous of medieval 'mirrors for princes' Giles of Rome's De regimine principum in Latin Lambeth Palace, MS Arc. Unusual texts, probably owned by Richard, were a collection of letters on statecraft ascribed to the Sicilian tyrant Phalaris, edited by Pietro Carmeliano Dublin, Trinity College, MS There are several interesting general aspects to Richard's collection of books: he had no preference for manuscript over print, and did not demand that all his books were new, or sumptuously decorated.
Through the quirks of survival his collection includes one of merely two surviving copies of the English translation of Mechtild of Hackeborn's Book of Special Grace , the only extant copy of a prose translation of the romance of Ipomedon Library of the Marquess of Bath, MS , the only manuscript copy of Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia regum Britanniae known to have belonged to a medieval king of England, and one of the two surviving texts of the Prophecy of the Eagle with a particular Commentary , which was added to the Historia.
Caxton was at the height of his production during Richard's brief reign and dedicated his Order of Chivalry to the king, and most important of all in the context of printing: when Richard's parliament took measures to control alien workers and their goods in England, books and their makers were specifically exempted.
There can be little doubt that among the kings of England, of any period, Richard's interest in books and the booktrade is unusual and remarkable. Loyalty, Lordship and Law , ed. Hammond, London , repr. A Medieval Kingship , London In King Edward was determined to regain his throne and he joined battle against his cousin and former ally, the earl of Warwick, at Barnet. The vanguard was led by the eighteen-year-old Richard and his success was recorded in the poem On the Recovery of the Throne by Edward IV:.
The duke of Glocetter, that nobill prynce, Yonge of age and victorius in batayle, To the honour of Ectour [Hector] that he myghte comens, Grace hym folowith, fortune, and good spede.
In King Edward mounted an expedition to France but quarrelled with his ally and brother-in-law, the duke of Burgundy, and made peace with the French king. Richard appeared to have hoped for a glorious campaign on the lines of Henry V's in and it was recorded that: Original artwork by Gerry Hitch. The Duke of Gloucester, the King of England's brother, and some other persons of quality, were not present at this interview, as being averse to the treaty; but they recollected themselves afterwards, the Duke of Gloucester waited on the king our master at Amiens.
Thank God, the giver all good gifts, for the support received from our most loving brother, whose success is so proven that he alone would suffice to chastise the whole kingdom of Scotland. This year we appointed our very dear brother Richard Duke of Gloucester to command the same army which we ourselves intended to have led last year, had not adverse turmoil hindered us.
The King. In his role as a 'good lord' Richard would have been asked to act as an executor. One such example is found in the will of Sir John Pilkington who came from an influential northern family:. In Richard's brother George, duke of Clarence, was arrested by the king and tried for treason, found guilty and privately executed.
Dominic Mancini, an Italian who visited England in , wrote about Richard's reaction:. Original artwork by Gerry Hitch. He contents the people wher he goys best that ever did prince; for many a poor man that hath suffred wrong many days have be relevyd and helpyd by hym and his commands in his progresse.
And in many grete citeis and townis wer grete summis of mony gif hym which he hath refusyd. On my trouth I lykyd never the condicions of ony prince so wel as his; God hathe sent hym to us for the wele of us al …'. Richard was concerned about justice, both for the individual and its administration. A Year Book reports one of his most famous acts, when he called together all his justices and posed three questions concerning specific cases.
This record provides an idea of Richard's comprehension of and commitment to his coronation oath to uphold the law and its proper procedures. The second question was this. If some justice of the Peace had taken a bill of indictment which had not been found by the jury, and enrolled it among other indictments 'well and truly found' etc.
And this question was carefully argued among the justices separately and among themselves, … And all being agreed, the justices gave the King in his Council in the Star Chamber their answer to his question in this wise: that above such defaults enquiry ought to be made by a commission of at least twelve jurors, and thereupon the party, having been presented, accused and convicted, shall lose the office and pay fine to the King according to the degree of the misprision etc.
Richard III. Original artwork by Gerry Hitch This accolade for Richard comes from an unexpected source. Dacre seemed to feel intimidated by the reputations of Richard and the earl of Northumberland resulting from a raid they had made into Tevydale in the s, which Dacre was expected to repeat.
Nine years later, he is still concerned at their exploits in a letter to Wolsey who responds that, as they took effectual measures to punish and repress offenders, he hopes Dacre will obey his wholesome and friendly admonition and acquire, 'as good a character as they did'. Bob Woosnam-Savage of the Royal Armouries will contribute to this section when his research, in conjunction with the University of Leicester Archaeological Services on King Richard's skeleton, is complete.
But which account - if any - was true? Although Rous' account was backed up a few years later by Polydore Vergil's History , until it was not certain that Richard was buried at the Leicester Greyfriars. Prominent historians had questioned this, therefore more evidence was needed. In I discovered a previously unpublished key sentence in a source at The National Archives. A widely-believed Ricardian story reported that his body had later been moved ….
Bow Bridge, Leicester Even on the day the dig started in August , people in Leicester told me ' You won't find him - he was dug up in and thrown into the River Soar '. Was this story true? Back in , the BBC commissioned me to research it. I discovered. I concluded from all this evidence that Richard III's body had never been moved , and it therefore still lay at the Greyfriars site.
War had erupted between England and Scotland during the early s; in , Richard was appointed lieutenant general of the north, leading several border raids. In June , Richard leads a full invasion of Scotland with a force of around 20, men. In the end, Albany backs down. Next day, Richard arrests Rivers and seizes the young king. Elizabeth flees into sanctuary, and Richard is proclaimed Protector of the Realm. Richard is crowned on 6 July.
According to the chronicler John Stow, this may have been a failed attempt to free the princes in the Tower, and ultimately may have sealed their fate. Other sources suggest that the princes were murdered on the advice of the Duke of Buckingham; Thomas More suggests that Richard decided to have them killed while in Warwick during his summer progress.
A lack of evidence means that the fate of Edward V and Richard, Duke of York remains unknown to this day. Richard is stung by the news that Henry, Duke of Buckingham, a previously loyal supporter, has joined the uprising. Meanwhile, Henry Tudor sails from Brittany in the hope of landing near Plymouth. Forced to turn back, he is soon joined by hundreds of English exiles who flee abroad after the failed rebellion. Bondsmen working on crown lands are also freed.
The king and his wife, Anne, are stunned. Richard is without an heir. Earlier, on Christmas Day , Henry Tudor had sworn that he would take Elizabeth of York as his wife if he successfully invaded England. Henry won French backing and began to prepare a fleet, while intrigue in England continued.
Rumours circulate that Anne has been poisoned; some add that Richard plans to marry his niece, Elizabeth of York. Believing that he will crush Henry, whose forces number only 2, or 3, and are dwarfed by the vast army gathered by the king at Nottingham, Richard delays his departure from the city to observe the festival of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary on 15 August.
His body is stripped and taken to Leicester, where it is later buried in the Grey Friars priory. Chris Skidmore is a historian and politician, and the author of several books on late medieval and Tudor England. Did he murder the Princes in the Tower? Did he want to marry his niece, Elizabeth of York? Edward of Westminster was killed at the battle of Tewkesbury, and Anne Neville almost certainly died naturally.
Morton had plotted with Lord Hastings in , but while Hastings was executed, Morton was only imprisoned. And in June , when the invasion of his stepson, Henry Tudor was imminent, Lord Stanley requested leave to retire from court. His loyalty had always been somewhat doubtful. Curiously, the monarchy website does not describe either Henry VII or Edward IV as usurpers, yet both of those kings seized power by force, in battle!
On the other hand, Richard III did not seize power. He was offered the crown by the three estates of the realm the Lords and Commons who had come to London for the opening of a prospective Parliament in on the basis of evidence presented to them by one of the bishops, to the effect that Edward IV had committed bigamy and that Edward V and his siblings were therefore bastards.
Even if that judgement was incorrect, the fact remains that it was a legal authority that invited a possibly reluctant Richard to assume the role of king. It has frequently been claimed on the basis of reports of a letter, the original of which does not survive , that in Richard III planned to marry his niece, Elizabeth of York, eldest daughter of Edward IV and Elizabeth Woodville.
Anne is unable to resist Richard's advances and becomes Duchess of Gloucester. Richard engineers the imprisonment of his elder brother, Clarence, in the Tower of London. Clarence tells his jailer a dream he had of drowning. Shortly afterwards, Richard's hired assassins kill him and place the body in a cask of wine.
Margaret curses Richard and the kingdom. To counter any claims to the crown, Richard confines his nephews, the young Prince of Wales and his brother, in the Tower of London. Another leading figure in revolt also included one of his former allies, Henry Stafford, 2nd Duke of Buckingham.
Only two months after his coronation, Richard faced a revolt by the Duke of Buckingham which, fortunately for the king, was easily suppressed. Two years later however, Henry Tudor looked to pose a more serious threat, when he and his uncle Jasper Tudor arrived in south Wales with a large force made up of French troops. This newly gathered army marched through the area, increasing momentum and gaining new recruits as they went. Finally, the confrontation with Richard was set to play out on Bosworth Field in August This epic battle would finally bring an end to the ongoing dynastic battle which had defined this period of English history.
The Battle of Bosworth. In the end he defected his support from Richard and changed his allegiance to Henry Tudor, taking with him around 7, fighters. Northumberland would prove ineffectual as well, and sensing that action needed to be taken Richard charged with his men across the battlefield with the aim of killing his contender and declaring victory.
Such a plan however sadly did not materialise for Richard who found himself surrounded by Lord Stanley and his men, resulting in his death on the battlefield. Significantly he was also the last English king to die in battle. Jessica Brain is a freelance writer specialising in history. Based in Kent and a lover of all things historical.
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